By David Cox, PhD, MBA

Abstract: Decades after landmark disability rights legislation, many universities in the United States continue to lag in providing equitable access - often at the expense of disabled students, faculty, and staff. While educational access has expanded, it has done so only through sustained advocacy, resistance, legislation, and reform. The narrative below is the first in a series on disability access and support in higher education. This issue examines historical societal perceptions and systemic exclusion in the United States because the change in the culture prior to the legislative efforts made it possible for accessibility. Subsequent articles will explore key legislation, followed by a global comparative analysis.

Introduction

Despite the passage of transformative disability rights laws, higher education institutions in the United States remain uneven in their implementation of inclusive practices. Access to education has improved, but for disabled individuals—students, faculty, and staff alike—this access was hard-won. Historical research reveals a lack of scholarly focus on disability in higher education, with most literature emphasizing physical accommodations or K–12 learning disabilities. This article aims to trace the historical roots of exclusion and the emergence of the independent living movement, setting the stage for future discussions on legislative developments.

A Silent Struggle: Early Exclusion and Limited Access

During the Victorian era, disabled individuals were often isolated from society, contributing to widespread unfamiliarity and fear (Covey, 1998). Institutionalization and concealment led to negative societal perceptions and a dearth of historical records, particularly in the context of higher education. This absence complicates efforts to reconstruct the lived experiences of disabled individuals in academic settings if they even existed at all.

In early American society, disability was frequently interpreted as divine punishment (Marini et al., 2017). Disabled individuals were stigmatized as moral failures, often subjected to persecution, institutionalization, or abandonment. Educational access, especially at the postsecondary level, was virtually nonexistent.

“Historical research reveals a lack of scholarly focus on disability in higher education, with most literature emphasizing physical accommodations or K–12 learning disabilities. This article aims to trace the historical roots of exclusion and the emergence of the independent living movement, setting the stage for future discussions on legislative developments.”

The Industrial Revolution (1790–1870) further marginalized disabled individuals. Factory work demanded physical strength and agility, and injured workers were routinely dismissed without compensation or retraining opportunities (Marini et al., 2017). During the Industrial Revolution, disabled, out-of-work people started to filtrate the population. There were no worker’s compensation benefits at the time, and no career retraining was evident—at least not on a wide scale. The absence of support systems reinforced the exclusion of disabled individuals from educational and professional advancement.

The nineteenth and twentieth centuries ushered in more exclusion as people with disabilities were placed in institutions or asylums, which was the primary option (Hewitt & Nye-Lengerman, 2019), which included people with epilepsy. Initially, the intent was too helpful, but institutions became dangerous and lonely over time. People who lived in these institutions rarely, if ever, saw their families (2019). They also experienced abuse, lack of care, poor living conditions, and often basic needs were not met.

Between 1840 and 1950, the rise of eugenics introduced a pseudoscientific rationale for excluding disabled individuals from society. Academic institutions became complicit in promoting selective breeding ideologies—which culminated in forced sterilizations—and, later, genocidal policies in Nazi Germany (Marini et al., 2017). These beliefs profoundly shaped public attitudes and institutional policies, further obstructing access to higher education. In the mid-twentieth century conditions in the United States were beginning to change—especially after World War II.

The Independent Living Movement and Higher Education

The mid-twentieth century marked a pivotal shift in the disability rights landscape with the rise of the independent living movement, which sought to dismantle systemic barriers in systemic barriers in housing, transportation, employment, and education. Daily living presented challenges such as access and use of a telephone, meal preparation, building accessibility, and note-taking in classes. Later, technological advances often presented additional challenges because hardware and programs were not initially designed for people with disabilities. All of these and more are necessary accommodations for higher education students.

In 1962, four disabled students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign pioneered a transformative model of autonomy by choosing to live in a home with caregiver support rather than in a nursing facility (Marini et al., 2017). This initiative laid the groundwork for broader access to education and self-directed living for the college student.

Building on this momentum, President Nixon’s 1973 funding of six Centers for Independent Living enabled disabled students to reside in apartments with assistive care (Nosek, 1998), fostering independence and societal integration, rather than segregation. By the century’s end, nearly 400 centers operated nationwide, offering essential services such as peer counseling, independent living skills training (commonly referred to as activities of daily living or ADLs), and community advocacy—many staffed by individuals with disabilities themselves, reinforcing the movement’s core values commitment of empowerment and representation.

While the independent living movement laid a foundation for autonomy and access, the physical relocation of disabled students into the mainstream campus housing did not automatically translate into full inclusion. Beyond structural accommodations, students with disabilities often encountered less visible challenges embedded within campus culture—ranging from social isolation and implicit bias to inaccessible extracurricular activities and academic environments. These invisible barriers, though harder to quantify, significantly shaped the lived experience of disabled students and underscored the need for deeper cultural shifts within higher education institutions.

Campus Culture and Invisible Barriers

Despite the progress ushered in by landmark legislation such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the journey toward genuine inclusion in higher education remains incomplete. Legal mandates have opened institutional doors, but they have not dismantled the subtle, pervasive barriers embedded within campus culture. Accessibility in higher education has evolved beyond ramps and restrooms; it now encompasses curriculum design, campus culture, and community inclusion. Yet, as students transition from the structured supports of K-12 education and the self-advocacy-driven environment of postsecondary institutions, many encounter a disconnect between policy and practice. This section examines how invisible barriers—rooted in social norms, institutional expectations, and cultural attitudes—continue to shape the experiences of disabled students on campus.

From the influx of disabled veterans following World War II to the growing recognition of cognitive and developmental disabilities in the 1960s and 1970s, colleges have gradually expanded their understanding of disability. The GI Bill dramatically reshaped the demographics of American colleges. By 1946, veterans comprised 52% of the student population, many of whom had acquired disabilities during military service. As Strom (1950) observed, “For the first time in the history of American higher education, student bodies are composed of a sizable number of disabled veterans, ranging in types of disability from minor ailments to almost total physical disability.” These students required targeted services to support their academic success, prompting institutions to begin grappling with the realities of disability on campus.

The American Council on Education (Strom, 1950) documented a wide range of disabilities among these students, including amputations, spinal injuries, malaria, tuberculosis, sensory impairments, and psychoneurotic conditions. By 1962, Herbert Rusalem noted a growing presence of physically disabled students on college campuses, attributing this trend to improved secondary education, rehabilitation services, financial aid, and shifting societal attitudes. He predicted that “the problems of educating the physically handicapped student will be receiving increasing attention” (Rusalem, 1962).

Prior to the 1960s, institutional responses focused primarily on physical disabilities. However, the emergence of the term “learning disabilities” in the 1960s (Osgood, 2007) marked a shift toward recognizing cognitive and developmental differences. By the 1970s, students with learning disabilities began enrolling in greater numbers, supported by evolving diagnostic frameworks and advocacy efforts (Gelber, 2024). The terminology of the era replaced stigmatizing labels such as “backward,” “perceptually handicapped,” or “brain injured,” reflecting a broader cultural shift in how disability was understood and addressed.

Despite these advances, students with disabilities often encounter a jarring transition from secondary to postsecondary education. In K-12 settings, Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) provide structured support and legal protections. Upon entering college, however, these supports do not carry over. Instead, students must navigate a new landscape governed by the ADA, which places the burden of disclosure and accommodation requests on the individual. This shift can be disorienting, particularly for students accustomed to proactive support systems.

This section explores the evolving landscape of disability inclusion in higher education, tracing its roots from post -World War II veteran enrollment to the broader recognition of physical and cognitive disabilities. While legislation such as the ADA mandated institutional compliance, cultural acceptance and meaningful inclusion lagged. The shift from physical accommodations to curricular and community integration reflects a growing awareness of invisible barriers. However, the transition from secondary education, where students benefit from structured support like IEPs, to college, where self-advocacy becomes essential, continues to pose significant challenges for students with disabilities.

Conclusion and Future Directions

Meaningful access to higher education for disabled individuals did not emerge organically, it was the result of persistent advocacy and systemic reform. This in no way is an exhaustive explanation of the many obstacles and milestones in the evolving evolution of freedoms for people with disabilities, but a glimpse of major milestones. While much of the preceding evidence did not have a direct impact on higher education, societal changes were necessary for foundational movement into higher education. Without the groundwork, many of the programs would be more involute or even non-existent. The next article in this series will examine the legislative milestones that catalyzed change, including the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. A future installment will explore global trends in disability inclusion within higher education.

References

Covey, H. (1998). Social perceptions of people with disabilities in history. Charles C Thomas.

Gelber, S. M. (2024). From compensation to accommodation: The history of learning disabilities in american higher education. History of Education Quarterly, 65(1), 8–28. https://doi.org/10.1017/heq.2024.16

Hewitt, A. S., & Nye-Lengerman, K. M. (Eds.). (2019). Community living and participation for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

Marini, I., Graf, N., & Millington, M. (2017). Psychological aspects of disability: Insider perspectives and strategies for counselors (2nd ed.). Springer Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1891/9780826180636

Nosek, M. A. (1998). Independent Living. In R. M. Parker & E. M. Szymanski (Eds.), Rehabilitation counseling: Basics and beyond (3rd ed.). Pro-Ed.

Osgood, R. L. (2007). The history of special education: A struggle for equality in public schools. Praeger.

Rusalem, H. (1962). The physically handicapped student and the college faculty. College and University, 37(2), 161–167.

Strom, R. J. (1950). The disabled college veteran of World War II. American Council on Education.

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